Post by Daubee on Mar 6, 2008 23:31:51 GMT -5
A bow is a weapon that projects arrows powered by the elasticity of the bow. Energy is stored in the limbs of the bow and transformed into rapid motion when the string is released, with the string transferring this force to the arrow. The bow is used for hunting and sport (target shooting), and in historical times it was a weapon of war.
The technique of using a bow is called archery. Someone who makes bows is known as a bowyer, and one who makes arrows a fletcher. Together with the atlatl and the sling, the bow was one of the first ranged weapons or hunting tools which used mechanical principles, instead of relying solely on the strength of its user.
Many bow designs have been used in different cultures and time periods. Common designs include the widespread long bows (Europe, North and South America, Africa and Asia), short bows (South African Bushmen), laminated wood (Japanese and Sami bows), sinew-backed bows (common in North America), and the horn-wood-sinew composite, (Eurasian nomads, also used for centuries in the Middle East, the later Roman Empire, China, Korea, and India). In modern times, the recurve and compound bows dominate for sport and hunting practices. Newer materials, including flexible plastics, fiberglass, and carbon fibers, have led to increases in range and projectile velocity.
Modern-day use of bows for hunting is a matter of controversy in some areas but is common and accepted in others. Modern hunters are often drawn to bow-hunting because it generally requires more practice and skill than taking game with a firearm. While modern rifles allow hunters to shoot large game (such as deer or elk) at distances of 100 yards (meters) or more, archers must usually take large game within 40 yards (meters); thus the archer must stalk the game more closely without frightening it away. Bow hunting is also still practiced in traditional cultures worldwide.
History
Rama breaking Shiva's bow at Sita's Swayamvara in Mithila, by Raja Ravi Varma (1848–1906)The bow was likely invented in the late Paleolithic or early Mesolithic. The oldest indication for its use in Europe comes from the Stellmoor in the Ahrensburg valley north of Hamburg, Germany and dates from the late Paleolithic Hamburgian culture (9th millennium BC). The arrows were made of a pine and consisted of a main shaft and a 15–20 centimeter (6–8 inches) long foreshaft with a flint point. There are no known definite earlier bows; previous pointed shafts are known but may have been launched by atlatls rather than bows.
The oldest bows known come from the Holmegård Fen, or swamp in Denmark. In the 1940s, two bows were found there. They are made of elm and have flat arms and a D-shaped midsection. The center section is biconvex. The complete bow is 1.50 m (5 ft) long. Bows of Holmegaard type were in use until the Bronze Age; the convexity of the midsection has decreased with time.
Mesolithic pointed shafts have been found in England, Germany, Denmark and Sweden. They were often rather long (up to 120 cm [4 ft]) and made of hazel, wayfaring tree, and other woody shoots. Some still have flint arrow-heads preserved; others have blunt wooden ends for hunting birds and small game. The ends show traces of fletching, which was fastened on with birch-tar.
The "Levantine" style of rock art, once dated to the Paleolithic but now thought to be early Neolithic, includes pictures of archers, such as the Cova dels Cavalls in La Valltorta, declared a World Heritage site in 1924. One petroglyph of the Levantine style has been dated to approximately 5000 BC.[3]
Self bows and arrows have been present in Egyptian culture since its predynastic origins, with "The Nine Bows" being a term for the various neighbors and enemies of Egypt. Egyptian composite bows are known from the ancient tombs, some dating from the early New Kingdom, indicating possible introduction by the Hyssops. Some bows from Tutankhamen’s tomb were composite bows, others self bows.
Most Neolithic European bows are made of yew. Ötzi the Iceman found in the Ötztaler Alps carried an unfinished yew longbow, with a bowstring of nettle or flax fiber.
In the Levant, artifacts which may be arrow-shaft straighteners are known from the Natufian culture onwards. The Khiamian and Pre-Pottery Neolithic A shouldered Khiam-points may well be arrowheads.
Native Americans used longbows (especially on the east coast) and flatbows (especially on the west coast), often recurved, made from various hardwood species, such as hickory. Likewise, the Fenno-Ugrian nations in Eurasia have traditionally used ash, maple, or elm flatbows. The bow was a late invention in the Americas.
Archers, also armed with spears, detail from the archers' frieze in Darius' palace, Susa. The bow became the main weapon of war of the Assyrians and Egyptians, whose warriors shot it on the ground and from chariots to great effect. War chariots fell entirely out of fashion by approximately the beginning of the Common Era, but development of horse archers by the people of the Eurasian Steppe, brought highly mobile archers back to the fore. Using composite bows, steppe peoples such as the Scythians, Huns, Turks, and Mongols became a dominant force.
In the Middle Ages, European powers made effective use of the longbow as a major weapon of war. It was an extremely effective weapon in battle and could penetrate armor from a considerable distance. The longbow however is a difficult weapon to master and requires years of training for effective use in war. A longbow which can pierce later medieval armour also requires a very strong man to draw it. In Medieval England and Wales, the longbow became a popular weapon, and archery was a popular pastime. When the quality of English archery began to decline in the 16th century, English monarchs went so far as to mandate by law longbow training for males of military age and placed restrictions on other physical sports such as football and ninepins so people would practice.
The development of gunpowder, muskets, and the growing size of armies (and their consequent demand for less-trained levies) slowly led to the replacement of bows as weapons of war, supplanted by firearms, which were simpler for conscripts to learn and use, causing bows to be relegated to sport and hobby use.
Types of bows
Compound bow
A compound bow is a modern bow that has pulleys, cams, or wheels at the end of each limb through which the bow string passes. As the bow is drawn, the pulleys or cams turn, which in turn changes the leverage of the bows' limbs. They are normally made to give a high resistance in the middle of the draw, and significant "let-off" at the end; this enables the bow to store a lot of energy while still being easy to hold and aim at full draw. They are little affected by changes in temperature or humidity and will give high speed at a lower draw weight compared to the simple bow. Unlike traditional bows, compound bows are always made of modern materials such as aluminum and carbon fiber. They were first developed and patented by Holless Wilbur Allen in the United States in the 1960s and have become increasingly popular.
With a traditional bow, the force required to draw the bow increases as the bow is drawn. This limits the total amount of energy and means that when the archer is at full draw and aiming, they have to hold the maximum draw weight of the bow.
Crossbow
The crossbow is a small bow attached to a wooden support and drawn towards a nut or pin. When a trigger is pressed, the pin or nut releases the bow string, shooting the bolt. The crossbow requires little effort to shoot, but early on took great strength to load, though this was solved by adding a windlass or crank. Another means of loading the crossbow was to use a small hook attached to the belt of the archer. The archer would then hold the crossbow still by slipping his foot into a foothold at the tip of the bow. He then pulled the bowstring back by placing the hook in the crossbow's string and standing up. This permitted the shooter to use his legs, instead of his arms, to pull back the string. This method was not long-lived in European land warfare, however, because the crossbow was soon after replaced by the musket.
The oldest remains of crossbows are found in East Asia and date back to 2000 BC[citation needed]. Some crossbows are known as a bowgun. They launch stones or lead. This Chinese invention dates back to at least 300 BC.
Arbalest
An arbalest is a large, powerful crossbow with a bow (prod) of steel, rather than of wood or horn/sinew composite. The Hussites were famous for their arbalest archers.
Ballista
A ballista is a torsion spring crossbow. Depending on size, it was used as a siege weapon. It has a high degree of efficiency because of the low inertia of the torsion springs, but efficiency decreases if operated under humid conditions and needs permanent anointment. It was usually operated by one (the "Scorpion" ballista) to three men. It shoots large arrows or stones. Nowadays, ballista-bows have been constructed.
Composite bow
Main methods of drawing bows composite bow is laminated from different materials to produce a bow. The Asiatic traditional composite bows use horn on the belly and sinew on the back, often with a wooden core to provide a gluing surface. The bows are backed with sinew because it is very elastic. Sinew will also shrink and pull a bow into reflex. The horn on the belly is very strong in compression and can handle a high draw weight without taking a set. These Asiatic bows were often highly recurved and reflexed, giving a short bow the ability to store lots of energy and shoot nearly as fast as a much longer bow. Modern, non traditional "composite" bows use laminated wood, plastic, and fiberglass.
Longbow
Longbows were ideally made from yew, but white woods elm, ash, hazel and Brazil were commonly used according to availability. Longbows were often built to be as tall as the archer, and a well-made bow could shoot well in excess of 300 yards (275 meters) using light arrows. A longbow archer could shoot up to 10 arrows per minute; a crossbowman or arbalester of the Hundred Years War could only shoot up to three.
The most famous example is the English longbow, carried by English (and Welsh) soldiers to great effect in the Hundred Years' War. At this time it was called the "war bow". At close range the longbow was capable of penetrating all but the very best plate armor of the time. At a distance, groups of archers would loose mass volleys on a high, arching trajectory at enemy formations. The arrows used were heavy, up to 4 ounces (112 grams) or more, with narrow heavy bodkin pointed heads and thick arrows often made of ash. This style of bow was used up until the time of the English Civil War but was almost completely replaced by the musket, mostly because of the years of training involved with archery.
Construction of a longbow begins with a stave of yew or another suitable wood. The stave is worked down a few growth rings on the back to ensure that the bow has some sapwood and mostly heartwood. White woods such as elm or ash need not be worked down a growth-ring, the sapwood in these woods are as strong as the heartwood. The stave is then "tillered" so the center of the bow is thicker than mid-limb, and mid-limb is thicker than the tips. Nocks are filed and the stave is braced low and rasped or planed more to ensure that the bow bends evenly. The bow is tillered eventually to full brace and then full draw, allowing the bow a few extra pounds to make up for poundage lost when the bow is broken in.
Yew sapwood is elastic in tension and yew heartwood is elastic in compression. This combination makes a durable bow. Modern yew bows are often backed with a thin layer of rawhide to keep from splintering or breaking on the back, since yew is so expensive. Although the whitewoods will make an English longbow if specially treated, they are better suited to making flat bows.
Flatbow
The limbs of a flatbow have a rectangular or rhombic cross-section, rather than curved or "crowned" as with a longbow. The typical modern flatbow is made from a whitewood such as ash, hickory, hazel, or oak, with limbs about 2 inches (5 cm) wide, tapering in the last outer third of the limbs to ½-inch (1 cm) nocks. It is often made about 66 inches (1.67 m) long and tillered elliptically, with good potential for high draw weights. This is a good form of bow because it allows anyone to make an excellent bow with little expense; many suitable whitewoods are cheap and plentiful, whereas yew and osage are expensive and the supply of good material is limited.
Yumi
A yumi is a Japanese longbow used in the practice of kyûdô. Traditionally made from a laminate of bamboo, wood, and leather, yumi are of asymmetrical design, with the grip positioned at about one-third the distance from the lower tip. It is believed the shape was designed for use on horseback, allowing the bow to be more easily moved from one side of the horse to the other.
Unlike most archery disciplines, the yumi is not drawn with fingers alone,[6] but with a ridge on the thumb of the leather glove or yugake, worn on the back hand. This meant the draw weight was not limited to the finger strength of the shooter. Instead, a more relaxed and holistic technique was developed and the yumi was drawn not just with the arm, but with kyûdôka, the whole breadth and being of the archer. The arrow was often nocked to the "wrong" or far side of the bow to allow quicker setting of the arrow, and the string was released not by relaxing the hand, but by altering the posture of the back hand wrist, allowing the string to slip over the ridge of the glove; the thumb becomes part of a rigid frame with the wrist piece, effectively negating finger strength in the process of shooting.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bow_%28weapon%29
The technique of using a bow is called archery. Someone who makes bows is known as a bowyer, and one who makes arrows a fletcher. Together with the atlatl and the sling, the bow was one of the first ranged weapons or hunting tools which used mechanical principles, instead of relying solely on the strength of its user.
Many bow designs have been used in different cultures and time periods. Common designs include the widespread long bows (Europe, North and South America, Africa and Asia), short bows (South African Bushmen), laminated wood (Japanese and Sami bows), sinew-backed bows (common in North America), and the horn-wood-sinew composite, (Eurasian nomads, also used for centuries in the Middle East, the later Roman Empire, China, Korea, and India). In modern times, the recurve and compound bows dominate for sport and hunting practices. Newer materials, including flexible plastics, fiberglass, and carbon fibers, have led to increases in range and projectile velocity.
Modern-day use of bows for hunting is a matter of controversy in some areas but is common and accepted in others. Modern hunters are often drawn to bow-hunting because it generally requires more practice and skill than taking game with a firearm. While modern rifles allow hunters to shoot large game (such as deer or elk) at distances of 100 yards (meters) or more, archers must usually take large game within 40 yards (meters); thus the archer must stalk the game more closely without frightening it away. Bow hunting is also still practiced in traditional cultures worldwide.
History
Rama breaking Shiva's bow at Sita's Swayamvara in Mithila, by Raja Ravi Varma (1848–1906)The bow was likely invented in the late Paleolithic or early Mesolithic. The oldest indication for its use in Europe comes from the Stellmoor in the Ahrensburg valley north of Hamburg, Germany and dates from the late Paleolithic Hamburgian culture (9th millennium BC). The arrows were made of a pine and consisted of a main shaft and a 15–20 centimeter (6–8 inches) long foreshaft with a flint point. There are no known definite earlier bows; previous pointed shafts are known but may have been launched by atlatls rather than bows.
The oldest bows known come from the Holmegård Fen, or swamp in Denmark. In the 1940s, two bows were found there. They are made of elm and have flat arms and a D-shaped midsection. The center section is biconvex. The complete bow is 1.50 m (5 ft) long. Bows of Holmegaard type were in use until the Bronze Age; the convexity of the midsection has decreased with time.
Mesolithic pointed shafts have been found in England, Germany, Denmark and Sweden. They were often rather long (up to 120 cm [4 ft]) and made of hazel, wayfaring tree, and other woody shoots. Some still have flint arrow-heads preserved; others have blunt wooden ends for hunting birds and small game. The ends show traces of fletching, which was fastened on with birch-tar.
The "Levantine" style of rock art, once dated to the Paleolithic but now thought to be early Neolithic, includes pictures of archers, such as the Cova dels Cavalls in La Valltorta, declared a World Heritage site in 1924. One petroglyph of the Levantine style has been dated to approximately 5000 BC.[3]
Self bows and arrows have been present in Egyptian culture since its predynastic origins, with "The Nine Bows" being a term for the various neighbors and enemies of Egypt. Egyptian composite bows are known from the ancient tombs, some dating from the early New Kingdom, indicating possible introduction by the Hyssops. Some bows from Tutankhamen’s tomb were composite bows, others self bows.
Most Neolithic European bows are made of yew. Ötzi the Iceman found in the Ötztaler Alps carried an unfinished yew longbow, with a bowstring of nettle or flax fiber.
In the Levant, artifacts which may be arrow-shaft straighteners are known from the Natufian culture onwards. The Khiamian and Pre-Pottery Neolithic A shouldered Khiam-points may well be arrowheads.
Native Americans used longbows (especially on the east coast) and flatbows (especially on the west coast), often recurved, made from various hardwood species, such as hickory. Likewise, the Fenno-Ugrian nations in Eurasia have traditionally used ash, maple, or elm flatbows. The bow was a late invention in the Americas.
Archers, also armed with spears, detail from the archers' frieze in Darius' palace, Susa. The bow became the main weapon of war of the Assyrians and Egyptians, whose warriors shot it on the ground and from chariots to great effect. War chariots fell entirely out of fashion by approximately the beginning of the Common Era, but development of horse archers by the people of the Eurasian Steppe, brought highly mobile archers back to the fore. Using composite bows, steppe peoples such as the Scythians, Huns, Turks, and Mongols became a dominant force.
In the Middle Ages, European powers made effective use of the longbow as a major weapon of war. It was an extremely effective weapon in battle and could penetrate armor from a considerable distance. The longbow however is a difficult weapon to master and requires years of training for effective use in war. A longbow which can pierce later medieval armour also requires a very strong man to draw it. In Medieval England and Wales, the longbow became a popular weapon, and archery was a popular pastime. When the quality of English archery began to decline in the 16th century, English monarchs went so far as to mandate by law longbow training for males of military age and placed restrictions on other physical sports such as football and ninepins so people would practice.
The development of gunpowder, muskets, and the growing size of armies (and their consequent demand for less-trained levies) slowly led to the replacement of bows as weapons of war, supplanted by firearms, which were simpler for conscripts to learn and use, causing bows to be relegated to sport and hobby use.
Types of bows
Compound bow
A compound bow is a modern bow that has pulleys, cams, or wheels at the end of each limb through which the bow string passes. As the bow is drawn, the pulleys or cams turn, which in turn changes the leverage of the bows' limbs. They are normally made to give a high resistance in the middle of the draw, and significant "let-off" at the end; this enables the bow to store a lot of energy while still being easy to hold and aim at full draw. They are little affected by changes in temperature or humidity and will give high speed at a lower draw weight compared to the simple bow. Unlike traditional bows, compound bows are always made of modern materials such as aluminum and carbon fiber. They were first developed and patented by Holless Wilbur Allen in the United States in the 1960s and have become increasingly popular.
With a traditional bow, the force required to draw the bow increases as the bow is drawn. This limits the total amount of energy and means that when the archer is at full draw and aiming, they have to hold the maximum draw weight of the bow.
Crossbow
The crossbow is a small bow attached to a wooden support and drawn towards a nut or pin. When a trigger is pressed, the pin or nut releases the bow string, shooting the bolt. The crossbow requires little effort to shoot, but early on took great strength to load, though this was solved by adding a windlass or crank. Another means of loading the crossbow was to use a small hook attached to the belt of the archer. The archer would then hold the crossbow still by slipping his foot into a foothold at the tip of the bow. He then pulled the bowstring back by placing the hook in the crossbow's string and standing up. This permitted the shooter to use his legs, instead of his arms, to pull back the string. This method was not long-lived in European land warfare, however, because the crossbow was soon after replaced by the musket.
The oldest remains of crossbows are found in East Asia and date back to 2000 BC[citation needed]. Some crossbows are known as a bowgun. They launch stones or lead. This Chinese invention dates back to at least 300 BC.
Arbalest
An arbalest is a large, powerful crossbow with a bow (prod) of steel, rather than of wood or horn/sinew composite. The Hussites were famous for their arbalest archers.
Ballista
A ballista is a torsion spring crossbow. Depending on size, it was used as a siege weapon. It has a high degree of efficiency because of the low inertia of the torsion springs, but efficiency decreases if operated under humid conditions and needs permanent anointment. It was usually operated by one (the "Scorpion" ballista) to three men. It shoots large arrows or stones. Nowadays, ballista-bows have been constructed.
Composite bow
Main methods of drawing bows composite bow is laminated from different materials to produce a bow. The Asiatic traditional composite bows use horn on the belly and sinew on the back, often with a wooden core to provide a gluing surface. The bows are backed with sinew because it is very elastic. Sinew will also shrink and pull a bow into reflex. The horn on the belly is very strong in compression and can handle a high draw weight without taking a set. These Asiatic bows were often highly recurved and reflexed, giving a short bow the ability to store lots of energy and shoot nearly as fast as a much longer bow. Modern, non traditional "composite" bows use laminated wood, plastic, and fiberglass.
Longbow
Longbows were ideally made from yew, but white woods elm, ash, hazel and Brazil were commonly used according to availability. Longbows were often built to be as tall as the archer, and a well-made bow could shoot well in excess of 300 yards (275 meters) using light arrows. A longbow archer could shoot up to 10 arrows per minute; a crossbowman or arbalester of the Hundred Years War could only shoot up to three.
The most famous example is the English longbow, carried by English (and Welsh) soldiers to great effect in the Hundred Years' War. At this time it was called the "war bow". At close range the longbow was capable of penetrating all but the very best plate armor of the time. At a distance, groups of archers would loose mass volleys on a high, arching trajectory at enemy formations. The arrows used were heavy, up to 4 ounces (112 grams) or more, with narrow heavy bodkin pointed heads and thick arrows often made of ash. This style of bow was used up until the time of the English Civil War but was almost completely replaced by the musket, mostly because of the years of training involved with archery.
Construction of a longbow begins with a stave of yew or another suitable wood. The stave is worked down a few growth rings on the back to ensure that the bow has some sapwood and mostly heartwood. White woods such as elm or ash need not be worked down a growth-ring, the sapwood in these woods are as strong as the heartwood. The stave is then "tillered" so the center of the bow is thicker than mid-limb, and mid-limb is thicker than the tips. Nocks are filed and the stave is braced low and rasped or planed more to ensure that the bow bends evenly. The bow is tillered eventually to full brace and then full draw, allowing the bow a few extra pounds to make up for poundage lost when the bow is broken in.
Yew sapwood is elastic in tension and yew heartwood is elastic in compression. This combination makes a durable bow. Modern yew bows are often backed with a thin layer of rawhide to keep from splintering or breaking on the back, since yew is so expensive. Although the whitewoods will make an English longbow if specially treated, they are better suited to making flat bows.
Flatbow
The limbs of a flatbow have a rectangular or rhombic cross-section, rather than curved or "crowned" as with a longbow. The typical modern flatbow is made from a whitewood such as ash, hickory, hazel, or oak, with limbs about 2 inches (5 cm) wide, tapering in the last outer third of the limbs to ½-inch (1 cm) nocks. It is often made about 66 inches (1.67 m) long and tillered elliptically, with good potential for high draw weights. This is a good form of bow because it allows anyone to make an excellent bow with little expense; many suitable whitewoods are cheap and plentiful, whereas yew and osage are expensive and the supply of good material is limited.
Yumi
A yumi is a Japanese longbow used in the practice of kyûdô. Traditionally made from a laminate of bamboo, wood, and leather, yumi are of asymmetrical design, with the grip positioned at about one-third the distance from the lower tip. It is believed the shape was designed for use on horseback, allowing the bow to be more easily moved from one side of the horse to the other.
Unlike most archery disciplines, the yumi is not drawn with fingers alone,[6] but with a ridge on the thumb of the leather glove or yugake, worn on the back hand. This meant the draw weight was not limited to the finger strength of the shooter. Instead, a more relaxed and holistic technique was developed and the yumi was drawn not just with the arm, but with kyûdôka, the whole breadth and being of the archer. The arrow was often nocked to the "wrong" or far side of the bow to allow quicker setting of the arrow, and the string was released not by relaxing the hand, but by altering the posture of the back hand wrist, allowing the string to slip over the ridge of the glove; the thumb becomes part of a rigid frame with the wrist piece, effectively negating finger strength in the process of shooting.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bow_%28weapon%29